Global Affairs Glossary

A situation where a country can produce a good or service more efficiently than another country, using fewer resources.

Benefits a state obtains from cooperation without comparing them to others' benefits, emphasizing overall improvement rather than relative advantage.

Complete and unrestricted authority of a state over its territory and population without external interference.

A cybersecurity approach that continuously evolves in response to emerging threats and changing tactics of cyber attackers.

Military and civilian missions led by the AU to prevent, manage, and resolve conflicts on the African continent.

The process by which certain issues are prioritized and framed for discussion in international forums or negotiations.

The ability of an actor to influence the priorities and topics addressed in international forums or negotiations.

The process by which media or actors influence the importance placed on topics in public discourse and policymaking.

The degree to which members of a military or political alliance maintain unity and cooperation in pursuing common goals. It affects the alliance's effectiveness and durability.

A situation where a state is dragged into an unwanted conflict due to obligations to an ally under a security agreement.

The process by which states enter into formal agreements to cooperate for mutual security or other goals. It influences balance of power and international stability.

The process by which states coordinate policies, share resources, and maintain trust to sustain collective defense agreements or partnerships.

A concept in international relations describing a system where sovereign states operate in an international system without a central governing authority, leading to self-help behavior among states.

A condition in the international system where no central authority exists above sovereign states, leading to self-help behavior and power competition.

The political annexation of one state by another, historically referring to Nazi Germany's annexation of Austria in 1938. It exemplifies aggressive expansionism and challenges to sovereignty.

A foreign policy strategy of conceding to aggressive demands to avoid conflict, notably used by Britain and France toward Nazi Germany before World War II. It often risks encouraging further aggression.

A diplomatic strategy where concessions are made to an aggressive state to avoid conflict, often criticized for encouraging further aggression.

Competitive development and deployment of AI technologies for military advantage among states.

A multilateral platform for security dialogue and confidence-building among Asia-Pacific countries.

Protection granted by a state to individuals fleeing persecution from their home country.

The use of granting asylum as a diplomatic tool to influence relationships between states or protect political dissidents.

An individual who flees their home country seeking international protection but whose refugee status has not yet been legally recognized. They await formal determination of their claim.

The practice where asylum seekers apply for refugee status in multiple countries to find the most favorable conditions. It raises complex legal and ethical issues in migration policy.

A condition where one party in a negotiation or transaction has more or better information than the other.

Conflict where opposing forces differ significantly in military capabilities or tactics, often involving guerrilla or unconventional methods.

An economic policy or condition where a country aims for self-sufficiency, minimizing reliance on international trade.

Military technologies capable of selecting and engaging targets without human intervention, raising ethical and security concerns.

A situation where no single state or coalition dominates others, maintaining stability through power equilibrium.

A theory in international relations suggesting that national security is enhanced when military capabilities are distributed so that no one state is strong enough to dominate others.

States form alliances based on perceived threats rather than just power, considering factors like geographic proximity and offensive capabilities.

An IR theory suggesting states form alliances based on perceived threats rather than mere power balances.

A strategy where a weaker state aligns with a stronger power to share the benefits of its dominance rather than balancing against it.

Direct diplomatic engagement and negotiation between two sovereign states to manage their relations and resolve issues.

A treaty establishing terms and protections for investments made by investors from one country in another country.

A treaty establishing terms and protections for private investment by nationals and companies of one state in another state. It aims to promote cross-border investment flows.

A legal process resolving disputes between investors and states under bilateral investment treaties, often outside domestic courts. It aims to protect foreign investments and ensure fair treatment.

A formal agreement between two countries outlining mutual defense commitments or cooperation on security matters.

A formal agreement negotiated and signed between two sovereign states outlining mutual obligations and rights.

The process by which dominant cultural norms and values spread to subordinate groups within international relations, shaping identities and social hierarchies. It reflects constructivist ideas about norm diffusion.

The ability of a state to quickly develop nuclear weapons from civilian nuclear technology if it decides to do so.

An international monetary system established after World War II to regulate currencies and promote economic stability through fixed exchange rates and institutions like the IMF and World Bank.

The distribution of costs, responsibilities, and risks among states or actors in collective security arrangements or international coalitions.

The resistance within government agencies to change policies or procedures, often slowing foreign policy adaptation.

A condition where government agencies operate with limited external oversight, allowing policy decisions to be made internally without political interference.

A theory explaining foreign policy decisions as outcomes of bargaining among government agencies with competing interests.

An environmental policy tool that sets a limit on emissions and allows entities to buy or sell emission allowances.

Efforts to enhance the skills, resources, and institutions of states or organizations to improve governance or development.

The formation of coalitions among states or actors to collectively control markets, resources, or political influence, often reducing competition. It can impact global economic governance.

A temporary stoppage of hostilities between conflicting parties to allow negotiations or humanitarian aid.

The process of observing and verifying adherence to agreed pauses in hostilities during conflicts, often conducted by international organizations or peacekeepers. It helps build trust and prevent escalations.

An act by a party in a conflict that breaches an agreed temporary halt to hostilities, undermining peace efforts.

Adjustments in natural or human systems to reduce harm or exploit beneficial opportunities from climate change.

Efforts to reduce or prevent the emission of greenhouse gases to limit global warming and its impacts.

Climate finance mobilizes funds to support mitigation and adaptation projects addressing climate change in developing countries.

The difference between the funds needed to address climate change impacts and the actual financial resources provided by countries and organizations. It challenges global climate mitigation and adaptation efforts.

The concept that climate change impacts and responsibilities should be addressed fairly, especially for vulnerable populations.

Using threats or limited force to persuade an adversary to change its behavior without full-scale war.

Collective defense is a security arrangement where an attack against one member is considered an attack against all members of an alliance.

A provision in a security pact where an attack against one member is considered an attack against all members.

A shared sense of belonging among a group of people or states that influences their interests and interactions in international relations. It shapes alliances and conflicts.

An arrangement where states agree that an attack against one is an attack against all, promoting mutual defense.

An agreement among states to respond together to threats and breaches of peace, ensuring mutual protection and deterrence.

An international agreement prohibiting all nuclear explosions for testing purposes.

Actions taken by conflicting parties to reduce tensions and build trust, often preceding formal peace negotiations.

A process in international organizations where decisions require general agreement rather than majority voting to ensure collective support.

An IR theory emphasizing the role of ideas, identities, and social norms in shaping state behavior and the international system.

Socially constructed sense of self for states or actors that shapes their interests and interactions in international relations.

A process where international norms spread rapidly among states, leading to widespread adoption and conformity.

Individuals or groups who promote new norms and values to influence state behavior in the international system.

Shared ideas and standards within international society that shape state behavior and identities according to constructivist theory.

A concept in constructivist theory where states' perceptions and identities shape security dilemmas, emphasizing that insecurity arises from social interactions rather than material factors alone.

The process by which states adopt norms and identities through interaction and shared understandings in the international system.

Negotiations between states during a high-tension situation where threats and concessions determine outcomes.

Urgent diplomatic efforts aimed at managing or resolving sudden international conflicts or emergencies to prevent escalation.

The condition in which adversaries avoid escalating conflicts during crises due to mutual deterrence or communication.

An approach analyzing how geographical assumptions and representations shape political power and international relations.

Cyber deterrence aims to prevent cyberattacks by threatening retaliation or imposing costs on potential attackers.

A national approach to prevent cyber attacks by threatening credible retaliation or denial of benefits to potential attackers. It adapts traditional deterrence principles to cyberspace.

The use of hacking and other cyber techniques by states or actors to obtain confidential or strategic information from other countries.

Agreed standards and rules that govern state behavior in cyberspace to promote stability and prevent conflict.

The principle that states have the right to govern and control cyberspace within their territorial borders.

Frameworks and policies designed to protect information systems and networks from cyber threats at national or international levels.

The use of digital attacks by states or non-state actors to damage or disrupt adversaries' information systems or infrastructure.

Regulations requiring data to be stored and processed within a country's borders to protect privacy and national security. They impact global internet governance and cross-border data flows.

A strategy where a country extends excessive loans to another to increase its political leverage or influence.

A strategy where a powerful country extends excessive credit to a weaker country to gain political or economic leverage when the debtor cannot repay.

A formal agreement between states to come to each other's defense if either is attacked. Such alliances aim to deter aggression by promising collective military response.

Agreements between states to support each other militarily if attacked, emphasizing mutual defense.

A theory in international relations positing that states seek security and survival rather than power maximization, emphasizing cautious behavior in an anarchic system.

A situation where international organizations or institutions lack sufficient democratic legitimacy or accountability to the populations they affect.

A foreign policy goal promoting the expansion of democratic governance worldwide through support for elections, institutions, and reforms. It links democracy promotion with international stability.

The theory that democracies are less likely to engage in armed conflict with one another.

The hypothesis that democracies are less likely to engage in armed conflict with one another due to shared norms and institutional constraints.

A strategy aimed at discouraging aggression by convincing an adversary that their attack will fail or have no benefit.

A strategy that discourages hostile actions by threatening severe retaliation if such actions occur.

A strategy that prevents aggression by threatening credible and severe retaliation.

The gap between individuals or communities with differing access to information and communication technologies.

Informal communication routes used by diplomats to negotiate sensitive issues away from public scrutiny.

Unauthorized use or reproduction of diplomatic documents or privileges for personal or political gain.

Legal protection granted to diplomats that exempts them from prosecution under the host country's laws.

A formal agreement by a sending state to waive immunity for its diplomats, allowing legal proceedings in the host country. It balances diplomatic privileges with accountability.

The formal acceptance by one state of another entity as a sovereign state capable of entering into relations.

The reduction or elimination of a country's weapons or military forces to promote peace and security.

A U.S. policy strategy aimed at containing two adversaries simultaneously, notably Iran and Iraq in the 1990s, to prevent regional dominance. It involves balancing multiple security threats.

The challenge of controlling technologies that have both civilian and military applications, complicating regulation and non-proliferation.

Dual-use technologies have both civilian and military applications, raising concerns about their regulation and control.

The protection of ecosystems and natural resources to sustain human well-being and prevent environmental conflicts.

A condition where countries are mutually reliant on each other for goods, services, and capital, affecting their political relations.

Restrictive measures imposed by states or international bodies to influence a target country's behavior without military action.

Actions by states or entities to bypass or undermine international economic sanctions imposed by other countries or organizations.

The automatic reinstatement of previously lifted economic sanctions when a party violates an international agreement. It serves as a mechanism to enforce compliance.

Economic statecraft uses economic tools like trade policies and sanctions to influence other states' behavior and achieve foreign policy goals.

Tools such as sanctions, trade agreements, and aid used by states to influence other actors' behaviors.

A government-imposed ban on trade or other commercial activity with a particular country to exert political pressure.

Negotiations and agreements between states to address global environmental challenges and promote sustainable development.

Efforts to use natural resource management and environmental cooperation to support sustainable peace in conflict-affected areas.

People forced to leave their homes due to environmental factors like climate change, natural disasters, or resource depletion.

Environmental security addresses threats to national and international stability caused by environmental degradation and resource scarcity.

Networks of professionals with recognized expertise and authority in a particular domain influencing policy outcomes internationally.

A network of experts and professionals sharing knowledge and expertise to influence policy-making in international affairs. They shape norms and technical standards.

Maritime zone extending 200 nautical miles from a state's coast where it has exclusive rights over natural resource exploration and use.

An EEZ is a maritime zone extending up to 200 nautical miles from a coastal state’s shore where it has special rights over natural resources.

Conflicts between states over maritime zones extending 200 nautical miles from their coastlines, affecting rights to resources and navigation. They often require international legal resolution.

Initial diplomatic efforts aimed at assessing the potential for negotiation or cooperation between conflicting parties. It often precedes formal talks or agreements.

Instances where efforts to establish lasting peace after conflict collapse, leading to renewed violence or instability.

A country where the government cannot provide basic services or security, leading to loss of control and potential humanitarian crises.

A measurement tool assessing the vulnerability of a state to collapse based on social, economic, and political indicators.

The ability of a state to launch a preemptive nuclear attack that significantly weakens an opponent's retaliatory forces.

Requirements imposed by donor countries or organizations that recipients must meet to receive aid, often related to governance reforms or policy changes. It links aid to political objectives.

A perspective emphasizing that states act primarily to preserve power and security in an anarchic international system, guiding pragmatic foreign policy decisions.

A situation where a state's control over its territory or population is divided among multiple authorities, often leading to weakened governance and challenges in international relations.

Collaboration between states focused on specific issues or sectors without addressing broader political disputes.

Process where cooperation in one sector leads to increased cooperation in related sectors, advancing regional integration.

An international relations theory that argues cooperation in specific technical or economic areas can lead to broader integration and peace.

International treaties setting standards for humanitarian treatment during war, including protections for civilians and prisoners.

The use of economic instruments to achieve geopolitical objectives and influence global power dynamics.

The use of economic instruments to achieve geopolitical objectives and enhance national power.

Rivalry among major states to achieve strategic dominance in global or regional arenas.

An informal arrangement among major powers to manage international order and prevent conflict through cooperation.

Periods of relative stability and lack of major war between dominant global powers due to mutual interests or deterrence.

Competition between the world's most powerful states for influence, security, and global dominance.

The process by which a dominant power loses its ability to enforce order and influence the international system.

A theory suggesting that international order is most stable when a single dominant power, or hegemon, enforces rules and norms globally.

The idea that international order is more likely to be maintained when a single dominant power enforces rules and norms.

A conflict aimed at determining or challenging the dominant power or hegemon in the international system.

Dominance of one state or group over others in the international system, influencing rules, norms, and power structures.

A composite statistic measuring a country's average achievements in health, education, and income.

An approach focusing on protecting individuals from threats like poverty, disease, and violence rather than just state security.

Temporary suspension of hostilities to allow delivery of aid or evacuation of civilians during armed conflict.

Designated safe routes established to allow civilians and aid to move through conflict zones without harm.

Humanitarian intervention is the use of military force by one or more states to prevent or stop widespread suffering or human rights violations in another state.

A diplomatic approach encouraging broad participation of diverse states and actors in international decision-making processes.

An approach to security emphasizing the participation of women, minorities, and marginalized groups in peace and security processes.

Diplomatic efforts by indigenous peoples to assert rights, negotiate treaties, and engage with states and international organizations. It emphasizes self-determination and cultural preservation.

The concept that the security of one state is linked to the security of others, emphasizing collective approaches to peace and conflict prevention. It challenges purely national security perspectives.

Unofficial communication and negotiation channels between states or actors outside formal diplomatic protocols.

The use of information and communication technologies to influence, disrupt, or manipulate adversaries' decision-making.

An organized rebellion aimed at overthrowing or undermining a government through irregular warfare tactics.

United Nations body assessing scientific information related to climate change to inform policymaking.

People forced to flee their homes but who remain within their country's borders due to conflict or disasters.

Measures and inspections by the IAEA to ensure nuclear materials are not diverted to weapons programs.

Economic policy requirements imposed by the IMF on countries receiving financial assistance to ensure repayment and economic stability.

A set of principles, norms, rules, and decision-making procedures around which actors' expectations converge in a specific issue area.

The development and application of shared principles, norms, rules, and decision-making procedures for the internet.

A multi-stakeholder platform for dialogue on public policy issues related to the internet's evolution and use.

Multilateral agreement aimed at limiting Iran's nuclear program in exchange for sanctions relief.

A governmental body that coordinates intelligence analysis and advises policymakers on security matters.

Legal criteria that must be met before engaging in war, including just cause and legitimate authority.

Fundamental principles of international law that are universally recognized and cannot be violated by any state.

A concept focusing on establishing fair and lasting peace through justice, reconciliation, and addressing root causes of conflict.

A framework ensuring that climate change mitigation efforts are fair and inclusive, protecting workers and vulnerable communities.

A policy approach ensuring that shifts to sustainable economies address social equity and protect vulnerable workers and communities. It integrates environmental and human security goals.

A moral framework that evaluates the justification and conduct of war based on principles like legitimate authority and proportionality.

Ethical and legal arguments used to legitimize the initiation or conduct of armed conflict.

The idea that liberal democracies are more peaceful toward each other due to shared norms, trade, and institutions.

A liberal theory concept that peace is maintained through democracy, economic interdependence, and international institutions.

A country whose strategic position or role disproportionately influences regional or global stability.

Military actions involving direct physical force such as airstrikes, artillery, or ground combat.

An international treaty that committed its parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions based on agreed targets.

Market-based tools like emissions trading and joint implementation designed to help countries meet greenhouse gas reduction targets.

A situation where an international institution or state loses credibility and support, undermining its authority.

Dominance of liberal democratic values and institutions supported by a leading global power.

International relations theory emphasizing cooperation through institutions to overcome anarchy and promote peace.

A global system based on rules, institutions, and cooperation promoting democracy, free trade, and human rights, established after World War II. It shapes current international relations.

A foreign policy doctrine advocating international cooperation, democratic governance, and rule-based order.

Climate change impacts that cannot be avoided through mitigation or adaptation, often requiring international support.

A financial mechanism to compensate vulnerable countries for climate change impacts that cannot be avoided.

An informal arrangement where great powers cooperate to maintain international order and prevent conflict.

The policies and regulations that manage the movement, rights, and integration of migrants across borders.

Treaty involving multiple countries to address global environmental issues with shared commitments.

Economic or political penalties imposed collectively by multiple states or international organizations to influence a target state's behavior.

A holistic approach to diplomacy involving multiple channels like government, NGOs, business, and citizen diplomacy to solve conflicts.

Voluntary climate action plans submitted by countries outlining their commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions under the Paris Agreement.

Neoclassical realism combines systemic factors with domestic variables to explain state behavior in international politics.

A theory emphasizing the role of international institutions in facilitating cooperation among states despite an anarchic international system.

A group of states not formally aligned with any major power bloc, promoting independence and peaceful coexistence.

NGO diplomacy involves non-state actors engaging in international relations to influence policies and promote humanitarian or environmental goals.

A key international law principle forbidding states from interfering in the internal affairs of other states.

International framework of treaties, agreements, and organizations aimed at preventing the spread of nuclear weapons.

An international treaty aimed at preventing the spread of nuclear weapons and promoting disarmament and peaceful use of nuclear energy.

Entities other than states, such as NGOs, corporations, or terrorist groups, that influence international relations.

Organized military forces that operate independently of recognized state governments, often involved in insurgencies or conflicts.

International agreements and institutions designed to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons.

Strategy of preventing aggression by threatening unacceptable nuclear retaliation.

Radioactive particles released into the atmosphere following a nuclear explosion, causing environmental and health hazards.

The condition of possessing the technological and material capability to develop nuclear weapons without having actually done so.

An international treaty aimed at preventing the spread of nuclear weapons and promoting peaceful nuclear energy use.

A government assessment outlining nuclear strategy, policies, and capabilities to guide defense planning.

The nuclear triad consists of land-based missiles, submarine-launched missiles, and strategic bombers to ensure a credible nuclear deterrent.

A security guarantee by a nuclear-armed state to protect an ally from nuclear attack.

Deliberate cyberattacks designed to disrupt, damage, or gain advantage over adversaries in cyberspace.

A theory in international relations that emphasizes states seek to maximize their power and dominance to ensure security.

Strategy where a great power uses regional allies to check rivals instead of deploying its own forces extensively abroad.

A global treaty within the UNFCCC framework aiming to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius.

Detailed guidelines adopted to implement the Paris Agreement on climate change, clarifying transparency and accountability measures.

Economic and social benefits that arise from reduced military spending after the end of a conflict.

The use of coercive military measures by international forces to restore peace in conflict zones without the consent of all parties.

Military interventions authorized by international bodies to restore peace, often using force beyond traditional peacekeeping.

Efforts undertaken after conflict to rebuild institutions, promote reconciliation, and prevent the recurrence of violence.

A UN body that supports peace efforts in countries emerging from conflict through coordination and resource mobilization.

Peacekeeping deploys international forces to maintain ceasefires and create conditions for lasting peace in conflict zones.

Power transition theory explains conflicts as arising when a rising power threatens to surpass the dominant hegemon, leading to potential war.

The use of force to prevent an imminent attack, justified before the attack actually occurs under international law.

Military attack launched to prevent an imminent threat from an adversary's offensive action.

Diplomatic approach that balances respect for sovereignty with promotion of human rights and international norms.

A conflict where external powers support opposing sides without direct involvement in the fighting.

An insurgency supported or instigated by an external state actor to advance its strategic interests indirectly.

A conflict where two opposing states or powers support combatants that serve their interests instead of fighting directly.

An entity with some attributes of statehood but lacking full sovereignty or international recognition.

An international norm that states have the responsibility to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity.

Cooperative arrangements among states to distribute responsibility for hosting and supporting refugees.

Refugee resettlement is the process of relocating refugees from an asylum country to a third country that agrees to admit them permanently.

The legal process by which authorities decide whether an asylum seeker qualifies as a refugee under international criteria.

A set of partially overlapping and non-hierarchical international institutions governing a particular issue area.

A group of states whose primary security concerns are interlinked, forming a distinct regional security environment.

International norm obligating states to prevent mass atrocities within their borders or accept international intervention.

An international norm that states must protect their populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity.

A country seeking to change the existing international order or territorial status quo to its advantage.

Sanctions busting involves illegal methods used by states or entities to evade economic sanctions imposed by other countries or international bodies.

Techniques used by states or entities to circumvent economic or political sanctions imposed by other countries or organisations.

An approach in international relations that explains how issues are framed as security threats requiring extraordinary measures.

A group of states among which war is considered unlikely because of shared norms, values, and mutual trust.

Situation where actions by a state to increase its security cause insecurity in others, leading to arms races or conflict.

Processes aimed at improving a state's security institutions to be effective, accountable, and aligned with democratic norms.

Targeted economic or political sanctions aimed at specific individuals or entities to minimize harm to the general population.

Tension between state sovereignty and international intervention for human rights or security.

International reserve assets created by the IMF to supplement member countries’ official reserves and provide liquidity.

International reserve assets created by the IMF to supplement member countries’ official reserves and provide liquidity.

A region or country over which a powerful state exerts predominant political, economic, or military control.

Regions where a powerful state exerts predominant political, economic, or military control without formal authority.

The condition of individuals who are not recognized as citizens by any country, lacking legal nationality.

Strategic ambiguity is deliberately vague policy communication to deter adversaries while avoiding explicit commitments.

A theory in international relations emphasizing the anarchic structure of the international system as the primary determinant of state behavior and power distribution.

Global agenda of 17 goals adopted by UN member states to address social, economic, and environmental challenges by 2030.

Incorporating the UN SDGs into national policies and international cooperation to achieve global development targets.

Informal activities by non-official actors like academics and artists to support peace and understanding.

Track One and a Half Diplomacy involves semi-official dialogues between government representatives and non-governmental actors to facilitate conflict resolution.

Official government-to-government negotiations conducted by diplomats or political leaders.

Informal, grassroots-level efforts involving ordinary citizens to resolve conflicts and build peace.

Informal and non-governmental dialogue between conflicting parties aimed at building trust and resolving disputes outside official channels.

Informal, often secretive diplomatic efforts conducted outside official channels to prevent or resolve conflicts.

Environmental contamination that crosses national borders, requiring international cooperation to manage.

These are networks of activists, NGOs, and international organizations collaborating across borders to promote norms and influence policy.

Criminal activities that cross national borders, including trafficking, smuggling, and cybercrime, impacting global security.

A set of principles, norms, rules, and decision-making procedures governing a specific international issue.

UN body responsible for promoting and protecting human rights worldwide through dialogue and investigations.

A UN body that supports post-conflict recovery and institution building to prevent relapse into conflict.

International system structure dominated by a single superpower with unmatched influence.

The UN General Assembly is the main deliberative body where all member states discuss and coordinate on international issues.

A principal UN body responsible for maintaining international peace and security with the power to authorize military action.

A former UN body established to oversee the administration of trust territories and guide them toward self-government or independence.

Use of digital technologies and online platforms to conduct diplomatic communication and negotiations.

Negotiation and cooperation processes over shared water resources to prevent conflict and promote sustainable use.

The capacity of a population to safeguard sustainable access to adequate quantities of acceptable quality water.

The spread of nuclear, chemical, or biological weapons to states or non-state actors.

WMD proliferation refers to the spread of nuclear, chemical, or biological weapons to states or non-state actors.

The principle that states have exclusive authority over their territory and domestic affairs without external interference.

Initiatives funded by the World Bank aimed at reducing poverty and promoting economic development in low-income countries.

A specialized UN agency responsible for international public health coordination and disease control.

A legal process resolving trade disputes between member countries to enforce WTO agreements.

Trade agreements within the WTO framework that involve only some member countries rather than all members.

These negotiations involve member states agreeing on tariff reductions to promote free and fair international trade.

Agreement aiming to simplify and expedite customs procedures to boost international trade efficiency.

Trade agreements among a subset of WTO members that do not require consensus of all members but operate under the WTO framework.

A zero-sum game describes a situation where one party’s gain is exactly balanced by another’s loss.

A region where states commit to peaceful resolution of disputes and prohibit the use or threat of force.