How Elections Work — Glossary

A political theory that emphasizes the positive role of ongoing conflict and disagreement in democratic societies to foster vibrant political engagement.

Voters can select as many candidates as they approve of, and the candidate with the most approvals wins.

The gradual erosion of democratic institutions and norms, leading to increased autocratic control without an outright coup. It often involves weakening checks and balances and restricting civil liberties.

The legal requirements candidates or parties must meet to appear on election ballots, such as signature collection or fees.

A formal process where candidates or parties collect signatures from eligible voters to qualify for inclusion on an election ballot.

An individual who speaks or campaigns on behalf of a candidate, often a celebrity or party leader, to broaden outreach and influence voters.

Individuals who speak or campaign on behalf of a candidate to extend reach and influence during elections.

A public forum where election candidates discuss policies and answer questions to inform voters and contrast their platforms.

A campaign strategy that focuses on the personal qualities and appeal of an individual candidate rather than their party or ideology.

A form of nationalism based on shared citizenship, values, and political rights rather than ethnicity or culture.

Primary elections in which only registered party members can vote to select their party’s candidate for the general election.

A series of non-violent protests and movements in the early 21st century in post-Soviet states promoting democratic reforms and political change.

A system where citizens are legally required to vote in elections or face penalties.

A democratic system designed to maximize agreement through power-sharing and broad coalition governments, often including proportional representation.

A democratic model emphasizing informed discussion and reasoning among citizens before making collective decisions.

A method combining public opinion polling with informed discussion among a representative sample to gauge considered public preferences. It aims to improve democratic decision-making.

The process through which a new democracy matures, becoming stable and unlikely to revert to authoritarianism.

A situation where international organizations or institutions lack sufficient democratic legitimacy or accountability to the populations they affect.

A foreign policy goal promoting the expansion of democratic governance worldwide through support for elections, institutions, and reforms. It links democracy promotion with international stability.

The theory that democracies are less likely to engage in armed conflict with one another.

The hypothesis that democracies are less likely to engage in armed conflict with one another due to shared norms and institutional constraints.

The idea that elected officials should physically resemble the demographic characteristics of their constituents.

The transfer of political power from a central government to regional or local governments within a state.

A theory by Jürgen Habermas emphasizing the role of rational dialogue and consensus in establishing moral norms and legitimacy in democratic societies.

Monitoring elections to ensure they are free, fair, and transparent.

An independent body responsible for overseeing the conduct, fairness, and logistics of elections to ensure integrity and public trust.

Deliberate design or reform of electoral systems to influence political outcomes or party systems.

Illegal interference with the election process to alter results.

The adherence to democratic principles and fairness in the conduct of elections, including transparency, accuracy, and freedom from fraud or coercion.

Illegal or unethical actions that compromise the fairness or integrity of an election.

The degree of change in voting patterns or party support between elections within a political system.

Fukuyama's argument that liberal democracy may represent the final form of human government after ideological evolution.

A constitutional provision that protects certain laws or principles from being easily amended or repealed.

Ethnic voting occurs when voters consistently support candidates or parties that represent their ethnic group, influencing electoral outcomes along ethnic lines.

Casting a vote to express support for a candidate or cause rather than to influence the election outcome.

Franklin D. Roosevelt’s articulation of fundamental freedoms—speech, worship, want, and fear—as goals for global security and democracy.

A parliamentary procedure where a minority delays or blocks legislation by extending debate, often used in legislatures with strong minority rights. It can affect democratic decision-making.

When individuals benefit from resources, goods, or services without paying for them or contributing to their provision, common in collective action problems.

The practice of scheduling primary elections earlier in the calendar to increase their influence in candidate selection.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau's idea of the collective interest of the people as the basis of legitimate political authority.

Jürgen Habermas argued that rational communication and dialogue are foundational for democratic legitimacy and social coordination.

The electoral edge enjoyed by current officeholders due to name recognition, resources, and established networks. This advantage often increases their chances of re-election.

A system where citizens elect representatives to make policy decisions on their behalf rather than voting on laws directly.

When voters base their electoral choices primarily on specific policy issues rather than party loyalty or candidate characteristics.

The power of courts to assess the constitutionality of laws and government actions, including election laws. It acts as a check on democratic processes.

Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe advanced radical democracy emphasizing agonistic pluralism and contestation within democratic politics.

A situation where political parties or branches of government cannot agree, preventing lawmaking or policy implementation.

Levitsky and Ziblatt identified regimes combining authoritarian practices with nominal democratic institutions, undermining genuine competition.

Walter Lippmann argued that public opinion is shaped by media and elite narratives, limiting true democratic participation.

Majoritarian democracy prioritizes the will of the majority in decision-making, often at the expense of minority protections.

An election system where the candidate or party with the majority of votes wins, often leading to single-party governments. It contrasts with proportional systems.

A theory that in a majority-rule voting system, candidates will position their policies to appeal to the median voter to win elections.

A strategy where candidates focus on criticizing opponents rather than promoting their own policies. It aims to reduce support for competitors through attack ads or rhetoric.

A voting method where voters publicly declare their choice instead of voting secretly.

The stability and strength of political parties and their relationships within a political system over time. High institutionalization promotes predictable politics.

The distribution of resources or favors by politicians to supporters in exchange for political support. It can undermine democratic fairness and accountability.

Votes a candidate receives based on their personal reputation and constituency service rather than party affiliation.

A significant and lasting shift in the patterns of party support or voter coalitions, often changing the dominant political party system.

A political ideology that pits 'the people' against elites and emphasizes direct popular control.

Presidential coattails describe the influence a popular presidential candidate has in boosting the electoral success of their party's down-ballot candidates.

An election held to select a party's candidate for a subsequent general election.

A second election held if no candidate achieves a required threshold in the primary to ensure majority support.

Habermas's concept of a space where citizens engage in rational-critical debate to influence political action.

A procedure allowing voters to remove an elected official from office before the end of their term through a direct vote.

The process of retallying votes to verify the accuracy of election results.

When voters make decisions based on evaluations of past government performance rather than future promises. It emphasizes accountability in democracy.

The collective will of the citizens aimed at the common good, which legitimizes political authority when it reflects the general will.

The agreement among individuals to form a collective sovereign that represents the general will and ensures freedom through law.

An electoral system where voters cast one vote in multi-member districts, often leading to strategic voting.

A political ideology advocating for interventions to promote social justice within a capitalist economy, combining democratic governance with welfare policies.

Voting for candidates from different parties on the same ballot, rather than supporting a single party.

A candidate whose presence in an election draws votes from a major candidate, potentially changing the outcome.

Decisions by potential candidates to run or not based on calculations about winning chances and vote splitting.

When voters choose a candidate not as their first preference but to prevent an undesirable candidate from winning.

A party official or elected leader who has a vote in selecting a party's presidential nominee, independent of primary or caucus results. Common in some party systems like the US Democrats.

A state in which no single candidate or party has overwhelming support, making it highly competitive and critical in determining election outcomes. Candidates often focus resources on these states during campaigns.

A voter who does not have a strong allegiance to any political party and can be persuaded to vote for different parties in different elections.

Voters who do not have consistent party loyalty and can change their vote between elections.

Voting for candidates from different political parties for different offices in the same election, reflecting independent or mixed political preferences.

An electoral system where all candidates compete in a single primary election and the two highest vote-getters advance to the general election regardless of party.

The difference in voter turnout rates between demographic groups, such as age, race, or socioeconomic status.

A party system dominated by two major political parties.

The ability of citizens and civil society to hold government officials accountable through elections and public participation.

The illegal practice of offering money or goods to voters in exchange for their votes. It undermines free and fair elections.

Regulations requiring voters to present specific identification to cast a ballot. Supporters say they prevent fraud; critics argue they can suppress turnout.

Efforts by political parties or organizations to encourage and increase voter turnout, especially among supportive demographics.

Actions or policies that prevent or discourage certain groups from voting.

Methods used to discourage or prevent specific groups from voting, such as strict ID laws or limited polling places.

The percentage of eligible voters who participate in an election by casting a ballot.