Nationalism & Populism

Nationalism is the belief that the nation — a group bound by shared identity (language, culture, history, ethnicity) — should be the primary unit of political organization, and that each nation deserves its own sovereign state.

This seems obvious now, but it's a relatively modern idea. Before the 19th century, most people were governed by empires, kingdoms, or city-states that didn't align with national identity.

Two Faces of Nationalism

Civic nationalism — the nation is defined by shared values and institutions. Anyone who adopts these values belongs. Examples: French Republicanism, American civic identity.

Ethnic nationalism — the nation is defined by ethnicity, blood, or culture. Belonging requires being born into it. Examples: Hungarian nationalism under Orbán, Hindutva nationalism in India.

The distinction matters enormously. Civic nationalism can be inclusive and democratic. Ethnic nationalism tends toward exclusion and can slide into authoritarianism.

Nationalism's Track Record

Nationalism liberated colonies across Africa, Asia, and Latin America. It unified Germany and Italy in the 19th century. It also fueled both World Wars and enabled the Holocaust. The ideology itself is neutral — its consequences depend on what kind of nation it imagines.

Worked Contrast: Civic vs. Ethnic Nationalism

The political theorist Hans Kohn (1944) drew the classic distinction between a Western, civic nationalism and an Eastern, ethnic one. It oversimplifies, but the contrast remains the single most useful lens for judging any nationalist movement:

A worked test: when a leader says citizenship should follow a loyalty oath and residence, that is civic; when a leader says only members of one ethnic or religious group are the 'real' nation, that is ethnic. Benedict Anderson (Imagined Communities, 1983) added a deeper point — every nation is 'imagined,' since members never meet most of their compatriots, so the real question is always which imagined community a movement builds.

What Is Populism?

Populism isn't a full ideology — it's a political style that can attach to any ideology. Its core claim: society is divided between a pure people and a corrupt elite, and the populist leader alone represents the people's true will.

This has consequences:

• Anti-pluralism — if we represent "the people," then opposition is illegitimate
• Anti-institutionalism — courts, media, bureaucracy are obstacles to the people's will
• Personalism — the movement centers on a single charismatic leader

Why Now?

The populist surge has identifiable causes:

1. Economic dislocation — globalization created winners and losers; losers feel abandoned
2. Cultural anxiety — immigration and social change threaten established identities
3. Elite failure — the 2008 financial crisis, Iraq War, and COVID response eroded trust
4. Social media — amplifies outrage, bypasses traditional media gatekeepers

Populism often fades when it meets the reality of governing. Populist leaders who win power must either moderate (and disappoint their base) or escalate (and damage institutions). Few thread the needle.