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Mixed Electoral Systems

How Germany, Japan, and other countries blend majoritarian and proportional elements into hybrid systems.

The Best of Both Worlds?

Mixed electoral systems attempt to combine the advantages of majoritarian and proportional systems. The basic idea is that some members are elected from single-member districts (providing local representation) while others are elected from party lists (providing proportionality). The key question is how these two components interact.

There are two main types. Mixed-member proportional (MMP) systems, used in Germany and New Zealand, use the proportional component to compensate for disproportionality in the district results. If a party wins fewer district seats than its vote share warrants, it receives additional list seats to make up the difference. Mixed-member majoritarian (MMM) systems, used in Japan and South Korea, keep the two components separate: district results stand on their own, and list seats are allocated independently.