How Government Works
Branches, separation of powers, federalism, and the checks that keep modern governments in balance.
Branches
Separation of powers
Montesquieu's 'Spirit of the Laws' (1748) argued power must be split across legislative, executive, and judicial functions or tyranny results. Every modern democracy implements some version — with wide variation in how much each branch constrains the others.
Legislative
Makes law. Unicameral (New Zealand, Denmark) or bicameral (US, UK, Germany, India).
Executive
Implements and enforces law. Presidential (US, Brazil), parliamentary (UK, India), or semi-presidential (France).
Judicial
Interprets law. Varies from supreme courts (US, India) to constitutional courts (Germany, South Africa) to no judicial review at all (UK until 1998).
Presidential vs parliamentary
Juan Linz's 'The Perils of Presidentialism' (1990) argued presidential systems are more vulnerable to democratic breakdown. Empirical work since is mixed — institutional design matters more than the binary.
Key Points
- Presidential: fixed terms, separate executive election, direct accountability. Risk: gridlock when branches conflict.
- Parliamentary: PM chosen by legislature, can be removed via no-confidence vote. Risk: coalition instability.
- Semi-presidential: both PM and president exist (France's cohabitation experience). Hybrid strengths and weaknesses.
Federalism
Types of federalism
Cooperative federalism
National and subnational governments work together on overlapping responsibilities. Modern US Medicaid, German Bund-Länder fiscal equalization.
Dual federalism
Strict division between national and state responsibilities. 19th-century US, modern Switzerland's reserved cantonal powers.
Asymmetric federalism
Some subnational units have more autonomy than others. Spain's autonomous communities (Catalonia, Basque Country), India's J&K special status (pre-2019).
Federal vs unitary: who does what?
Key Points
- Unitary (France, UK pre-devolution): central government holds all sovereign power, delegates administratively.
- Federal (US, Germany, Canada, India, Australia): subnational units have constitutionally protected powers.
- Confederal (EU, historic US under Articles of Confederation): voluntary union; member states retain sovereignty.
Checks & Balances
Classic US checks
Madison in Federalist 51 argued 'ambition must be made to counteract ambition.' The US system is the textbook case.
Key Points
- President can veto legislation; Congress can override with 2/3 supermajority.
- Senate confirms executive nominations and treaties.
- Supreme Court established judicial review in Marbury v. Madison (1803).
- Impeachment: House indicts, Senate tries.
Informal checks that matter more
Constitutional design only goes so far. Norms, media, and civil society do most of the work.
Key Points
- Free press (Fourth Estate): investigation and accountability beyond courts.
- Independent civil service and auditors (US GAO, UK NAO).
- Ombudsman offices (Scandinavia pioneered; now in 150+ countries).
- Civil society + protest: last line of defense when institutions fail.
FAQ
What makes a government democratic?
Dahl's 'Polyarchy' criteria: free and fair elections, universal suffrage, freedom of expression, alternative sources of information, associational autonomy, inclusive citizenship. V-Dem and Polity IV operationalize these.
What are hybrid regimes?
Electoral authoritarianism — regimes that hold elections but don't meet democracy criteria. Russia, Turkey, Hungary, Venezuela in varying degrees. Competitive authoritarianism is Levitsky and Way's term for this.
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