Government & Policy Glossary

A system of government in which a single hereditary ruler holds unrestricted political power, unconstrained by a constitution, legislature, or independent judiciary.

The learning, compliance, and psychological costs imposed on individuals or organizations by government regulations and procedures.

The flexibility granted to bureaucrats in interpreting and applying laws and regulations when implementing policy.

Administrative law governs the activities and decisions of government agencies to ensure legality and fairness.

An official who presides over disputes involving administrative agencies, making legally binding decisions.

Legislation that governs the process by which federal agencies develop and issue regulations, ensuring transparency and public participation.

The network of executive-branch agencies that make, enforce, and adjudicate rules under authority delegated by the legislature.

A specialized [Quasi-Judicial Body](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/quasi-judicial-body) that resolves disputes involving administrative law and government agencies.

Administrative tribunals are specialized quasi-judicial bodies that resolve disputes involving government agencies or regulatory matters outside the regular court system. They provide quicker, specialized decisions.

A constitutional requirement that certain presidential appointments and treaties must be approved by the legislative body before taking effect.

A U.S. constitutional power requiring Senate approval of treaties, ambassadors, federal judges, and senior executive officers nominated by the president.

Efforts by individuals or groups to influence public policy and decision-making processes.

A theory explaining policy change by focusing on groups of actors who share beliefs and coordinate over time to influence policy subsystems.

An organized group that seeks to influence public policy and decision-making to benefit a specific cause or interest.

The formal procedure by which changes or additions are made to a constitution.

A document submitted by a non-party to a court case offering information or expertise relevant to the case to assist in decision-making.

A regime type that mixes democratic and autocratic features, typically unstable and lacking coherent institutions for either competitive politics or full authoritarian control.

A constitutional provision that authorizes government spending only if approved by the legislature through specific [Appropriations](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/appropriations).

Legislative acts that allocate specific funding for government programs and agencies.

An [Appropriations](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/appropriations) bill authorizes government spending for specific programs or departments.

A [Legislative Committee](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/legislative-committee) responsible for determining the specific allocation of funds to government agencies and programs.

A provision added to an [Appropriations Bill](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/appropriations-bill) that may be unrelated to the main purpose of the bill.

An [Appropriations](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/appropriations) subcommittee is a smaller legislative group focused on allocating specific portions of the government budget to particular departments or programs.

A federal system in which constituent units hold different powers, rights, or fiscal arrangements rather than identical status under the central government.

An independent public official who audits government accounts and reports to the legislature on how public funds have been spent.

An authoritarian regime concentrates power in a single leader or party with limited political freedoms.

A member of a legislature who holds no ministerial or shadow ministerial office and sits on the back rows of the chamber behind party leaders.

A proposed constitutional rule requiring government expenditures not to exceed revenues in a fiscal year, typically with exceptions for war or supermajority votes.

A foundational legal document that functions as a constitution, often used where full constitutional status is provisional, devolved, or politically constrained.

A legislature divided into two separate chambers or houses, typically an upper and a lower house, each with distinct powers and responsibilities.

An official government publication, traditionally bound in blue covers, used to report data, policy, or proceedings—most often associated with the UK and Commonwealth governments.

A legislative process that expedites the passage of budget-related bills by limiting debate and amendments. It is often used to implement fiscal policies efficiently.

A system of government officials and agencies responsible for implementing laws and policies through organized procedures.

Mechanisms that ensure government officials and agencies are responsible for their actions and decisions.

Bureaucratic discretion allows public administrators to interpret and implement laws flexibly within their authority.

The tendency of bureaucratic agencies to implement policies in ways that deviate from the original legislative intent over time. It can result from agency discretion and changing priorities.

Common dysfunctions within bureaucracies, such as red tape, conflict, duplication, and waste, that hinder effective public administration.

A Senate rule that restricts the use of reconciliation to budget-related provisions, preventing extraneous policy from being included.

A constitutional convention where all cabinet members must publicly support and defend decisions made by the cabinet, even if they privately disagree.

A restructuring of a government's cabinet in which a head of government reassigns, dismisses, or appoints ministers without holding a general election.

A government system in which policing, prosecution, surveillance, and imprisonment play an outsized role in managing social, economic, and political problems.

A government employee recruited and promoted on merit who serves across changes of administration, providing politically neutral expertise and institutional continuity.

An unwritten constitutional rule that limits a government's decision-making to routine matters during an election period or transition between administrations.

A temporary government that manages routine state affairs during a transition period, typically between an outgoing administration and an incoming one.

A federal grant provided to states or localities for a specific purpose with strict limitations on how the funds may be spent.

The interactions and power dynamics between central governments and local or regional authorities in a decentralized system.

Centralized [Federalism](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/federalism) is a system where the national government holds significant authority over policy decisions, limiting regional autonomy.

A system in which a monarch serves as head of state with largely symbolic and ritual functions, while real political power rests with elected officials.

Checks and balances distribute government powers to prevent any branch from becoming too powerful.

A legislative bill, usually in the U.S. Congress, that accumulates many unrelated amendments or special-interest provisions as it moves toward passage.

A municipal government structure in which an elected council hires a professional city manager to run day-to-day administration and implement policy.

A sovereign political unit consisting of an independent city and its immediate surrounding territory, exercising self-government over its own affairs.

A civil law system is a legal [Framework](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/framework) based on comprehensive written codes and statutes rather than judicial precedents.

The civil service is a professional body of government employees who implement public policies and programs.

A set of binding standards that defines the core values and expected conduct of permanent government officials, distinct from political appointees.

A competitive test used to select candidates for government employment based on merit rather than political connections.

A recruitment and promotion system for government employees based on qualifications and performance rather than political connections.

Efforts to improve the efficiency, accountability, and professionalism of government employees by changing hiring and management practices.

Civil society comprises organizations and groups outside government that influence public policy and community life.

A legal action filed by a group of people collectively to seek remedy for common grievances, often involving government policies or regulations.

A parliamentary procedure used to end a [Filibuster](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/filibuster) or debate and bring a matter to a vote by limiting further discussion.

The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) is the codified compilation of general and permanent rules issued by U.S. federal executive departments and agencies.

The process of collecting, arranging, and consolidating a jurisdiction's enacted laws into a systematic, subject-organized code with official legal authority.

A constitution whose fundamental rules are written down in a single, authoritative legal document with higher status than ordinary legislation.

A municipal government structure in which voters elect a small board of commissioners who collectively hold both legislative and executive authority.

The leader of a [Legislative Committee](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/legislative-committee) responsible for setting agendas, guiding discussions, and managing committee operations.

The specific subject areas and types of legislation for which a [Legislative Committee](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/legislative-committee) has authority to review, amend, and recommend bills. It defines the committee's scope within the legislative process.

A session where a [Legislative Committee](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/legislative-committee) debates, amends, and rewrites a bill before it is sent to the full chamber.

Committee of the whole is a legislative procedure where the entire legislative body operates as a single committee to expedite debate and decision-making.

A document prepared by a [Legislative Committee](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/legislative-committee) that explains its findings, recommendations, and proposed changes to a bill under consideration.

The phase in a legislature's lawmaking process where a bill is examined in detail by a committee, which may amend it before reporting back to the chamber.

The study and comparison of different forms of authoritarian regimes to understand their structures and behaviors.

The study and analysis of different federal systems around the world to understand variations in power distribution and governance.

A senior government official who audits public accounts, oversees federal spending, and reports findings to the legislature to ensure fiscal accountability.

Concurrent powers are authorities shared by both federal and state governments, allowing them to legislate and enforce laws in the same areas.

Funds provided by a higher level of government to a lower level with specific conditions on how the money must be used.

The practice of imposing specific conditions on grants or aid provided by higher levels of government to lower levels or recipients.

A political arrangement in which two or more sovereign states jointly exercise sovereignty over a single territory and its population.

A union of sovereign states that delegate limited powers to a central body while retaining ultimate authority, including the right to withdraw.

A conference committee resolves differences between House and Senate versions of a bill to produce a unified law.

A document produced by a [Conference Committee](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/conference-committee) that reconciles differences between House and Senate versions of a bill before final approval.

The formal floor vote by which the U.S. House and Senate each accept the reconciled text produced by a conference committee, sending the bill to the President.

A pact in which a minor party agrees to support a minority government on confidence votes and budget bills without entering a full coalition.

A formal change or addition made to a constitution following a specific legal procedure.

An assembly convened to draft or amend a constitution, or, in Westminster systems, an unwritten but binding rule of constitutional practice.

A specialized judicial body that rules on the constitutionality of laws and government actions, separate from ordinary courts.

The process of making certain constitutional provisions difficult to amend or repeal. It protects fundamental rights and structures from easy changes.

A system of government in which a monarch serves as head of state within the limits of a constitution, while political power is exercised by elected institutions.

A parliamentary procedure that lets legislators oust a head of government only if they simultaneously elect a named successor by majority vote.

A limited legal protection granted to consular officers under the 1963 Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, shielding them from prosecution for official acts.

A temporary U.S. funding measure that lets federal agencies keep operating at existing levels when Congress has not passed full-year appropriations on time.

A federal system where national and state governments collaborate closely to solve common problems and implement policies.

A local government structure in which an elected council sets policy and hires a professional manager to run day-to-day administration.

A legislator, especially in Westminster-style parliaments, who sits independently of the government and opposition party blocs and takes no party whip.

A state-owned enterprise in Commonwealth realms, especially Canada, that operates at arm's length from government while being ultimately owned by the Crown.

A self-governing possession of the British Crown that is not part of the United Kingdom or a British Overseas Territory, but for which the UK handles defence and most foreign affairs.

The UK's supreme legislative authority, composed of the monarch, the House of Lords, and the House of Commons acting jointly to make law.

A constitutional or statutory fiscal rule that caps government structural borrowing, most famously Germany's Schuldenbremse limiting federal deficits to 0.35% of GDP.

A legislative limit on the amount of national debt that the government is authorized to borrow to meet its obligations.

A debt [Deficit](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/deficit) occurs when government expenditures exceed revenues, increasing national debt.

A term for the permanent bureaucracy of career civil servants, regulators, and agency officials whose institutional power persists across elected administrations.

The amount by which government expenditures exceed its revenues in a fiscal year.

The power granted by a higher authority to a subordinate to carry out specific tasks or make decisions within defined limits.

Rules or laws made by an individual or body other than the legislature, under powers given by an Act of Parliament.

The process by which a legislature authorizes executive agencies to write binding rules that fill in the details of statutes.

A state model in which a capable bureaucracy actively steers private investment and industrial policy to achieve rapid, catch-up economic growth.

A sub-national government granted specified legislative or executive powers by a central state, while sovereignty remains with the central legislature.

A legal doctrine holding that U.S. local governments possess only those powers expressly granted by the state, necessarily implied, or essential to their declared purposes.

A procedural motion in the U.S. House of Representatives that forces a bill out of committee to the floor for a vote if signed by a majority of members.

Government spending on programs and policies that are decided through annual [Appropriations](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/appropriations) processes rather than mandated by law.

Policies that allocate resources or benefits to specific groups or sectors without directly reducing resources from others.

Distributive politics involves allocating government resources to specific groups or regions to gain political support without broad policy reforms.

A form of [Federalism](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/federalism) where state and national governments operate independently in their own areas of policy and law enforcement.

A dual [Mandate](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/mandate) occurs when an elected official holds two political offices simultaneously, potentially creating conflicts of interest.

A legislative provision directing funds to a specific project, recipient, or location, typically inserted into an appropriations or authorization bill.

A system of government in which the monarch is chosen by a designated body of electors rather than inheriting the throne by birthright.

The authority granted by voters to elected officials to implement their proposed policies. It legitimizes government actions based on election results.

A law passed by a legislature that grants an executive agency, official, or subordinate body the authority to take specified actions or issue regulations.

An engrossed bill is the official, certified version of a legislative measure as passed by one chamber, incorporating all adopted amendments.

The final, official version of a bill that has passed both chambers of a legislature in identical form and is ready for the executive's signature.

A constitutional provision that is shielded from ordinary amendment, requiring special procedures or being unalterable, to protect core legal or political principles.

A parliamentary committee that scrutinises the government's projected expenditure (the "estimates") and recommends economies or improvements in administration.

Assessment of a policy or program before implementation to predict potential impacts and effectiveness.

An international agreement made by the executive branch without requiring legislative approval. It allows the executive to manage foreign relations efficiently within certain limits.

The annual budget plan submitted by the executive branch outlining government spending priorities and revenue estimates.

The power of the executive to grant pardons or reduce sentences for individuals convicted of crimes.

A [Directive](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/directive) issued by the executive branch that manages operations of the government and has the force of law without needing legislative approval.

The right claimed by executive branch officials to withhold information from the legislature or judiciary to preserve confidential communications or national security.

A principle allowing the executive branch to withhold certain communications from other branches to protect confidentiality and national interest.

A situation where the executive and legislative branches cannot agree, leading to a standstill in policy making or governance.

The official daily journal of the U.S. federal government, publishing proposed and final rules, executive orders, and agency notices.

Federalism divides power between a central government and subnational units, allowing shared governance.

A political system in which sovereignty is constitutionally divided between a central government and constituent regional units that retain defined autonomous powers.

A parliamentary procedure to end a [Filibuster](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/filibuster) by requiring a supermajority vote to limit further debate on a bill.

The initial formal stage in a legislature where a bill is introduced and its title read, typically without debate or vote on the substance.

The degree to which subnational governments can independently generate revenue and make spending decisions without central government control.

The process of allocating financial resources and taxing authority from central to subnational governments.

A quantitative measure assessing the degree to which fiscal responsibilities and revenues are devolved from central to subnational governments.

A system of financial transfers designed to reduce disparities in fiscal capacity among different regions or governments.

The financial relations and distribution of taxing and spending powers among different levels of government.

Different forms of federal grants include categorical grants, block grants, and formula grants, each with varying levels of restrictions on how funds are spent. These grants shape intergovernmental fiscal relations and policy priorities.

Government decisions about taxation and spending to influence the economy.

The [Fiscal Policy](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/fiscal-policy) multiplier measures how government spending impacts overall economic output and growth.

A long-lasting numerical constraint on government budgets—covering deficits, debt, spending, or revenue—designed to discipline fiscal policy over time.

A bilateral treaty in which a sovereign state delegates certain functions—typically defense and some funding—to a larger state while retaining independent statehood.

A legislative vote in which party whips are lifted, allowing members to vote according to personal conscience rather than party instruction.

A senior legislator in a Westminster-style parliament who holds a ministerial or shadow-ministerial post and sits on the front row of benches in the chamber.

A system where the executive and legislative branches are interconnected, typical in parliamentary systems.

A polity in which specialists in violence dominate politics, economy, and culture, so that society is organized around the perpetual expectation of war.

A political system or institution in which power is held predominantly by elderly leaders, often through seniority norms, weak succession rules, or entrenched incumbency.

A statutory interpretation principle that follows the literal meaning of words unless doing so produces absurdity, in which case the meaning is modified to avoid it.

The Government Accountability Office is an independent agency that audits and evaluates government programs to ensure efficient use of public funds.

A lapse in government operations that occurs when the legislature fails to pass appropriations bills, forcing non-essential agencies to suspend activities.

An official government document that sets out policy proposals or positions on a specific issue, often as a precursor to legislation or to explain a state's stance.

A political authority that claims to be the legitimate government of a state but operates from foreign territory, usually because of occupation, coup, or civil conflict.

A governing alliance between the two largest parties in a legislature, usually rivals from opposing blocs, formed when no smaller coalition is viable.

A government consultation document that sets out policy proposals or options for discussion, inviting feedback before any binding decision is made.

The official substantially verbatim transcript of debates in the UK Parliament and many Commonwealth legislatures, named after printer Thomas Curson Hansard.

A 1939 U.S. federal law limiting partisan political activity by executive branch employees to keep the civil service nonpartisan and free of coercion.

The chief executive responsible for running a country's government and directing its administration, often distinct from the ceremonial head of state.

The highest-ranking constitutional representative of a sovereign state, who personifies its unity and represents it in international relations.

A statutory provision that lets ministers amend or repeal primary legislation through secondary (delegated) legislation, bypassing the usual parliamentary process.

An informal U.S. Senate practice in which a senator notifies their party leader of intent to object to unanimous consent, blocking floor action on a bill or nomination.

A constitutional arrangement granting a region, city, or dependency authority to govern its own internal affairs while remaining part of a larger sovereign state.

Mechanisms by which state institutions hold each other accountable to prevent abuse of power within the government.

A UK parliamentary bill that changes the general law but also specially affects particular private interests, combining public and private bill procedures.

A political system that combines democratic features like elections with authoritarian practices such as repression, weak rule of law, or executive dominance.

A state that holds elections but limits civil liberties, judicial independence, media pluralism, and checks on executive power.

Incremental budgeting adjusts previous budget amounts slightly for the new fiscal period instead of creating budgets from scratch.

A policy-making approach where changes occur through small, gradual adjustments rather than large shifts.

A government body created by statute that operates outside the direct control of the executive's cabinet departments, often with insulated leadership and rulemaking power.

A member of parliament who sits without affiliation to any political party, voting and campaigning on their own platform rather than a party whip.

An independent official within a government agency tasked with auditing, investigating, and rooting out waste, fraud, and abuse in that agency's programs and operations.

The collaboration among different government agencies to achieve common policy goals or implement programs efficiently. It addresses overlapping responsibilities and reduces duplication.

Funds provided by one level of government, usually federal, to lower levels such as states or municipalities to support specific programs or general purposes.

A group composed of representatives from different levels of government to coordinate policies and resolve jurisdictional issues.

Intergovernmental relations coordinate collaboration and conflict resolution between different government levels.

A formal process in legislatures where members question government officials or ministers to hold them accountable.

A formal agreement between two or more states to cooperate on specific policy issues or projects.

The interactions and collaborations between different states or regions within a federal system to manage shared interests and conflicts.

The theory that all complex organizations, including democracies, tend to develop oligarchic leadership structures over time.

A stable, mutually beneficial relationship among bureaucratic agencies, interest groups, and legislative committees that shapes policy outcomes.

A judicial philosophy where courts are more willing to interpret the constitution broadly and overturn laws or policies to promote social change.

The process by which judges are selected and confirmed to serve on courts, often involving nomination by the executive and approval by the legislature.

An independent body that selects and recommends candidates for judicial office to ensure impartiality and merit-based appointments.

The principle that the judiciary should be free from undue influence by the executive or legislative branches to ensure impartial decision-making.

A body that recommends or selects candidates for judicial appointments to promote merit over politics. It aims to enhance [Judicial Independence](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/judicial-independence) and reduce partisan influence.

Judicial restraint limits courts from overturning laws unless they clearly violate the constitution, emphasizing respect for legislative decisions.

The [Judicial Review](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/judicial-review) doctrine empowers courts to invalidate laws and executive actions that conflict with the constitution.

A principle where courts avoid interfering with legislative or executive decisions unless there is a clear violation of the constitution or rights.

A system of government run by the worst, least qualified, or most unscrupulous members of a society.

An informal group of trusted, unofficial advisers who influence a head of government outside the formal cabinet or bureaucratic structure.

A system of government in which rulers use political power to expropriate public wealth and state resources for personal enrichment.

A legislative session held after an election but before newly elected members take office, often featuring outgoing legislators who will not return.

A legislative [Caucus](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/caucus) is a group of lawmakers sharing common interests or party affiliation who coordinate strategies and policies.

A legislative committee reviews bills and conducts hearings to inform the full legislature's decisions.

A parliamentary procedure where a legislator speaks at length to delay or block a vote on a proposal. It is commonly used in the U.S. Senate to extend debate and prevent a bill's passage.

A practice where a senator informs party leaders of their [Objection](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/objection) to a bill or nomination, delaying floor consideration. It is an informal way to stall legislative action without formal objection.

A session where a [Legislative Committee](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/legislative-committee) debates, amends, and rewrites proposed bills before voting. It shapes the final content of legislation.

The process by which legislative bodies monitor and supervise government agencies and officials to ensure laws are implemented properly and to prevent abuse of power.

The minimum number of members required to conduct official business in a legislative body.

An additional provision added to a bill that may be unrelated to the bill's main topic. Riders can be used to pass controversial measures attached to essential legislation.

A mechanism allowing a legislature to nullify or reject actions taken by the executive branch, often without full legislative approval. It serves as a check on executive power.

A legislative process where the legislature votes to overturn an executive [Veto](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/veto), typically requiring a supermajority to succeed.

The power of an executive to reject specific provisions of a budget or bill without vetoing the entire document.

The [Lobbying Disclosure](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/lobbying-disclosure) Act requires lobbyists to register and report their activities to increase transparency in government influence.

The constitutional or statutory power of municipal and regional governments to manage their own affairs with limited interference from central authorities.

A legislative practice in which lawmakers trade votes on different bills, each supporting another's priority measure to secure passage of their own.

A ceremonial staff that symbolizes the authority of a legislative chamber and, when displayed, indicates the house is formally in session.

Majoritarian democracy prioritizes the will of the majority in decision-making, often at the expense of minority protections.

A legislative leader elected by the majority party responsible for managing the legislative agenda and party strategy.

A court order compelling a government official or agency to perform a mandatory duty correctly and promptly.

A letter from a government leader outlining priorities and expectations for ministers or officials.

The idea that elected officials have an obligation to carry out the policies promised during their campaign.

The idea that election winners have a public [Mandate](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/mandate) to implement their campaign promises and policy agendas.

This theory holds elected officials should act according to the wishes of their constituents who gave them a [Mandate](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/mandate) through election. It contrasts with the trustee model where officials use their judgment independently.

A committee meeting where members debate, amend, and rewrite proposed legislation before voting.

A meeting where a [Legislative Committee](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/legislative-committee) debates, amends, and rewrites proposed bills before they proceed to the full legislative body. It shapes the final content of legislation.

A form of municipal government in which an elected mayor serves as chief executive and an elected council acts as the legislative body.

A public-sector compensation system that ties a portion of an employee's pay to measured job performance rather than tenure or fixed grade steps alone.

A system of government or organization in which power, positions, and rewards are allocated based on demonstrated ability, achievement, or talent rather than wealth or birth.

A governance structure that coordinates public services and planning across a large city and its surrounding municipalities under a single regional authority.

The administration of sovereign states with very small populations or territories, typically marked by compact bureaucracies, outsourced functions, and outsized diplomatic leverage per capita.

A government whose cabinet ministers' parties collectively hold fewer than half the seats in the legislature, relying on outside support to pass laws.

The head of the party with the second-largest number of seats in a legislative chamber. This leader organizes opposition and strategy against the majority party.

Protections and entitlements guaranteed to minority groups to ensure fair treatment and prevent majority dominance.

A common-law canon of statutory interpretation, from Heydon's Case (1584), directing judges to construe a statute so as to suppress the mischief it was passed to remedy.

A legislative bill dealing exclusively with taxation, public expenditure, or government borrowing, typically subject to special procedural rules favouring the lower house.

A parliamentary motion sending a pending bill back to committee for further consideration, often used as a minority's last chance to amend legislation before a final vote.

The process by which the government takes control of private assets or industries for public ownership.

A theoretical approach emphasizing the role of institutions in shaping political behavior and outcomes beyond formal rules.

A public administration approach emphasizing efficiency, performance measurement, and market-based management techniques.

A management approach emphasizing serving citizens and democratic values over traditional bureaucratic efficiency.

A minimal state whose only legitimate functions are protecting citizens from force, theft, and fraud, and enforcing contracts.

A U.S. administrative procedure requiring agencies to publish proposed rules, accept public comments, and respond before issuing binding regulations.

A provision in Canada's Charter of Rights and Freedoms allowing Parliament or a provincial legislature to override certain Charter rights for up to five years.

A doctrine asserting a state's right to invalidate federal laws deemed unconstitutional within its borders.

Rule by the mob or crowd; a degenerate form of democracy in which mass passion and intimidation override law and deliberative institutions.

A system of government in which political power is concentrated in the hands of a small group of people distinguished by wealth, family, military rank, or other status.

An independent public official who investigates citizen complaints against government agencies and recommends remedies for maladministration.

A single legislative document that packages together several measures into one comprehensive bill for approval.

Efforts to increase transparency and public participation in the government budgeting process.

An open committee hearing is a public legislative session where testimony and discussions are accessible to citizens and media.

A governance principle promoting transparency, accountability, and citizen participation in government activities.

The official daily agenda of a legislature, listing the business, motions, questions, and bills to be considered during a sitting.

A statute of constitutional rank that organizes a state institution or fundamental right, typically requiring a higher legislative threshold than ordinary laws.

A public budgeting approach that allocates funds based on the measurable results programs achieve rather than on inputs, activities, or historical spending.

A territory under the sovereignty of a state but located outside its main geographic area, usually with a distinct political and administrative status.

A [Legislative Committee](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/legislative-committee) responsible for monitoring and supervising government agencies and programs to ensure compliance and effectiveness.

A formal meeting held by a [Legislative Committee](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/legislative-committee) to review and monitor government operations.

A government-owned corporation or agency that undertakes commercial activities on behalf of the state.

The lowest tier of elected local government in England, representing a civil parish and handling very local matters like footpaths, allotments, and community facilities.

The principle that the legislature has supreme authority over all other government institutions and can make or repeal any law.

A legislative organization in which designated party officers ("whips") enforce voting discipline and manage member attendance on key votes.

A government job or office filled by political loyalty or personal connection rather than competitive merit, typically awarded by an elected official or party.

A U.S. budget rule requiring that new mandatory spending or tax cuts be offset so they do not increase the federal deficit over a set window.

A budgeting approach that links funding allocations to measurable outputs, outcomes, or performance targets rather than to inputs or line items.

The most senior career civil servant heading a government ministry in the UK and many Commonwealth states, providing non-partisan administrative leadership across changes of government.

A diplomat who is acceptable to the host state, cleared to take up an official posting under the rules of diplomatic relations.

A constitutional law doctrine where courts identify the true character or dominant purpose of a law to determine which level of government has authority to enact it.

A canon of statutory and treaty interpretation requiring courts to apply the ordinary meaning of clear, unambiguous text without consulting outside materials.

A plenary session is a full assembly meeting where all members of a legislative body gather to debate and vote on issues.

An executive branch structure where multiple officials are independently elected rather than a single chief executive.

A political theory that recognizes the diversity of interest groups competing to influence policy.

An electoral system where the candidate with the most votes wins, even if they do not have an absolute majority.

A system of government in which political power is held, directly or indirectly, by the wealthy or by those whose authority derives from concentrated economic resources.

When an executive lets a bill become law without signing it because the legislature is still in session during the constitutional review window.

An indirect [Veto](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/veto) by the executive, occurring when a bill is not signed within the time allowed and the legislature is not in session.

The set of issues and problems that government officials and policymakers prioritize for action at a given time.

The process through which problems and issues gain the attention of policymakers and become priorities for government action. It shapes which topics receive legislative or executive focus.

The stages through which public policy progresses: agenda-setting, formulation, adoption, implementation, evaluation, and termination.

The process by which policy ideas and programs spread from one government or jurisdiction to others.

An individual who promotes and advocates for certain policies by leveraging opportunities during the [Policy Cycle](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/policy-cycle).

Policy evaluation assesses the effectiveness and [Impact](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/impact) of public policies after implementation.

The influence that existing policies have on future political behavior and policymaking.

The stage in the [Policy Cycle](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/policy-cycle) where possible solutions are developed and analyzed before decision-making.

The stage in the [Policy Cycle](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/policy-cycle) where adopted policies are put into action by government agencies.

The difference between the goals of a policy as designed and the outcomes achieved during its execution.

A policy window is a limited opportunity when political conditions align to allow significant policy changes or reforms.

A government official chosen by an elected leader to serve in a policy or advisory role, typically without going through a competitive civil service process.

The practice of legislators directing government spending to projects in their home districts, primarily to benefit local constituents and boost re-election prospects.

The legislature's constitutional authority to control government spending and taxation.

A system of territorial administration in which a central government divides the country into prefectures led by an appointed or elected prefect who exercises delegated authority.

A written pronouncement issued by the U.S. President when signing a bill into law, often interpreting, commenting on, or objecting to specific provisions.

A form of government where the executive branch is separate from the legislature, and the president is both head of state and government.

The power of the president to reject a bill passed by the legislature, preventing it from becoming law unless overridden.

A weekly session in the UK House of Commons where the Prime Minister answers questions from MPs, led by the Leader of the Opposition.

A conflict that arises when an agent (such as a bureaucrat) has different interests than the principal (such as elected officials).

A bill introduced in a legislature by a member who is not part of the government or cabinet, used to propose laws outside the official government agenda.

A motion that takes precedence over ordinary business because it concerns the rights, comfort, or orderly functioning of the assembly itself.

A budgeting method that organizes public spending around programs and their objectives rather than by line-item inputs or organizational units.

A dependent territory that retains its own local ruler or government but cedes control of defense and foreign relations to a stronger protecting state.

A temporary governing authority that exercises state power during a transition, typically after revolution, regime collapse, decolonization, or armed conflict.

A parliamentary committee that scrutinises government spending and audits to ensure public money is used efficiently, lawfully, and as authorised by the legislature.

The study and management of government revenue, expenditure, and debt.

The official citation number assigned to a US federal bill once enacted, formatted as Pub. L. No. [Congress]–[sequence], e.g., Pub. L. No. 117–169.

A costed benchmark estimating what a public project would cost if delivered conventionally by government, used to test value-for-money in public-private partnerships.

A procurement method in which a government awards a long-term contract to a private consortium to finance, build, and operate public infrastructure or services.

A method of statutory and treaty interpretation that asks what objective the drafters intended a provision to achieve, rather than reading the text in isolation.

A quasi-autonomous non-governmental organisation: a body funded and empowered by government but operating at arm's length from ministers.

An organization that has some governmental powers and responsibilities but operates independently from direct government control. These agencies often perform public functions while enjoying operational flexibility.

An organization that has some governmental powers and responsibilities but operates independently from direct government control.

An administrative agency or body that has powers resembling those of a court to make decisions or judgments.

Activities carried out by administrative agencies that involve applying rules to specific cases, similar to judicial proceedings but within an executive or administrative context.

Authorities granted to administrative agencies to conduct hearings and make decisions similar to courts. These powers enable agencies to enforce regulations and adjudicate disputes within their jurisdiction.

A process where administrative agencies make decisions that have legal effects similar to court judgments, including hearings and evidence evaluation.

Authority granted to administrative agencies to create rules and regulations that have the force of law within their areas of jurisdiction.

A scheduled parliamentary session in which ministers must answer oral questions from legislators about government policy and administration.

A political alliance uniting parties or groups across ideological, ethnic, or regional lines, typically formed to govern or contest elections together.

A formal stage in a legislature's consideration of proposed legislation, traditionally marked by the bill being read aloud or by title before debate or vote.

A temporary U.S. presidential appointment to a federal office made while the Senate is in recess, bypassing the usual confirmation vote.

A legislative procedure in some governments that expedites the passage of budget-related bills by limiting debate and amendments.

A regulatory agency enforces rules and standards to control specific industries or activities for public interest.

A situation where regulatory agencies advance the commercial or political concerns of special interest groups that dominate the industry they regulate.

The adherence by individuals or organizations to rules and standards set by regulatory agencies to ensure lawful conduct.

An assessment of the expected effects, costs, and benefits of a proposed regulation.

A systematic evaluation of the potential effects of a proposed regulation before it is implemented.

A document analyzing the potential effects, costs, and benefits of a proposed regulation before it is adopted.

A supervised testing scheme where regulators let firms trial innovative products with real customers under tailored rules and temporary exemptions.

A mode of governance in which the state steers the economy and society primarily through rule-making and independent agencies rather than direct ownership or fiscal transfers.

A state that derives most of its revenue from external rents—typically natural resource exports—rather than from domestic taxation of its population.

A stage in parliamentary lawmaking where a bill, after committee scrutiny, is reported back to the full chamber for further amendment before final passage.

Discretionary constitutional powers a head of state may exercise without, or against, ministerial advice, usually in moments of political crisis or deadlock.

The movement of personnel between roles as legislators or regulators and positions in industries affected by the legislation or regulation.

A policy strategy that integrates human rights principles into the design and implementation of policies.

The formal approval by a monarch that turns a bill passed by the legislature into law in a constitutional monarchy or Commonwealth realm.

The residual discretionary powers, historically held by the Crown, that are exercised in the United Kingdom and some Commonwealth realms without statutory authority.

The principle that all individuals and institutions are subject to and accountable under laws that are fairly applied and enforced.

A legislative committee that sets the procedural terms—debate time, amendments allowed, voting order—under which bills reach the chamber floor.

A U.S. excepted-service classification created in 2020 that would strip job protections from federal employees in policy-related roles, easing their removal.

The stage in a legislature where members debate the general principles of a bill and vote on whether it should proceed to detailed scrutiny.

A government system where executive power is divided between a directly elected president and a prime minister accountable to the legislature.

The U.S. Senate's constitutional power to approve or reject presidential nominees for executive, judicial, and diplomatic positions before they take office.

The division of government responsibilities into distinct branches to prevent concentration of power and provide [Checks and Balances](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/checks-and-balances).

An officer of a legislature or assembly responsible for maintaining order, enforcing rules, and providing security during proceedings.

A group of opposition party members who scrutinize and offer alternative policies to the government ministers.

An opposition team of legislators assigned to scrutinise and mirror specific cabinet ministers, ready to take office if the government changes.

A senior opposition legislator assigned to scrutinise and develop alternative policy to a specific government minister's portfolio in a Westminster-style parliament.

Primary legislation that sets out only broad principles or a framework, leaving most substantive policy detail to be filled in later by delegated (secondary) legislation.

A slip law is the first official standalone publication of a newly enacted statute, issued individually before being compiled into session laws or a code.

The principle that all states are juridically equal members of the international system, possessing the same legal rights and duties regardless of size, power, or wealth.

The presiding officer of a legislative chamber's lower house, responsible for managing debate, enforcing rules, and often setting the chamber's agenda.

A subnational territory of the People's Republic of China that retains its own legal, economic, and administrative systems under the "one country, two systems" principle.

A procedural device that sets aside normal rules to schedule debate or a vote on a specific measure at a designated time.

A local government unit created to deliver one or a few specific public services, separate from general-purpose city or county government.

A practice in which a winning political party rewards loyal supporters with government jobs and contracts rather than appointing officials on merit.

A permanent [Legislative Committee](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/legislative-committee) that focuses on specific subject areas to review bills and oversee government activities.

State [Sovereignty](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/sovereignty) is the principle that states have supreme authority over their territory and domestic affairs without external interference.

A commercial entity in which a national or subnational government holds majority ownership or controlling interest, operating in markets while pursuing public objectives.

The legal power granted to a government body or official by a statute passed by a legislature, defining what actions they may lawfully take.

A form of delegated legislation in the United Kingdom by which ministers make detailed rules under powers granted by an Act of Parliament.

The process by which courts determine the meaning of legislation and apply it to specific cases, especially where the statutory text is ambiguous.

A form of government in which the state is administered directly by the military, with civil and military leadership fused into a single chain of command.

A form of municipal government in which the mayor holds substantial executive powers, including budget authority, veto rights, and control over administrative appointments.

A tier of government below the national level—such as states, provinces, regions, or municipalities—that exercises delegated or constitutionally guaranteed authority.

A legal clause that sets a future date for a law or regulation to come into effect, allowing time for preparation and compliance. It helps governments phase in new policies smoothly.

A statutory process that automatically terminates a government agency or program on a set date unless a legislature affirmatively reviews and reauthorizes it.

A provision within a law or regulation that sets an automatic expiration date unless further legislative action is taken to renew it.

A legislative body that periodically reviews government agencies and programs to decide whether they should be reauthorized, restructured, or abolished.

Legislation that includes a provision for automatic expiration after a certain period unless renewed.

A legislative clause that sets an expiration date for a law or program unless renewed by the legislature.

A periodic evaluation process to determine whether a government program or agency should continue, be modified, or terminated.

An informal term for a cabinet or executive body that conducts its deliberations openly, subject to public access and transparency requirements.

An additional budget passed by a legislature mid-fiscal-year to authorise spending beyond, or in adjustment to, the original annual budget.

A procedural motion that temporarily sets aside standard rules of order so a body can take an action it could not otherwise take quickly or at all.

A hierarchical relationship in which a dominant state controls a subordinate polity's foreign affairs while letting it govern its internal matters.

A government led by unelected experts—economists, lawyers, academics—appointed for their technical competence rather than electoral mandate or partisan affiliation.

A system of government in which religious authorities rule directly or in which the state's laws are derived from a religion's sacred texts.

An organization that conducts research and provides advice on public policy issues to influence government decisions.

The final stage of legislative debate in many parliaments, where members approve or reject a bill in its final form before it moves to the other chamber or to assent.

The strictest instruction issued by a parliamentary party to its legislators, requiring attendance and a vote along the party line, with defiance risking expulsion.

A form of government in which political participation and office-holding are restricted to citizens who meet a property, wealth, or honor threshold.

A New England form of direct local democracy in which a town's registered voters assemble to debate and vote on budgets, bylaws, and other municipal business.

A temporary governing body installed to administer a state during a defined transition period, usually between regime collapse, peace settlement, or constitutional overhaul.

A non-self-governing territory placed under UN-supervised administration by a designated state to promote its progress toward self-government or independence.

A binding U.S. Senate procedural agreement, approved without objection, that sets terms for considering a bill, nomination, or other matter.

A state in which sovereign power is concentrated in a single central government that may create, alter, or abolish subnational units at will.

A cabinet that brings together the major political parties of a legislature, often formed during crises, war, or contested elections to broaden legitimacy.

A constitutional system whose rules are not consolidated into a single codified document but drawn from statutes, conventions, case law, and historical texts.

The ability of citizens and [Civil Society](https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/civil-society) to hold government officials accountable through elections and public participation.

The constitutional power of an executive to reject a bill passed by the legislature, preventing it from becoming law without further legislative action.

A parliamentary procedure in which legislators formally declare they no longer support the government, typically forcing the cabinet or prime minister to resign.

A municipal government structure in which the mayor has limited executive authority and most administrative and policy power rests with the city council.

A system in which the state assumes primary responsibility for the economic and social well-being of its citizens through redistribution, public services, and social insurance.

A parliamentary system of government characterized by a sovereign or ceremonial head of state and a prime minister who is accountable to the legislature.

The Westminster system features a parliamentary government where the executive is drawn from and accountable to the legislature.

A party organization within legislatures responsible for discipline, vote counting, and ensuring member attendance.

A 1989 U.S. federal law shielding executive-branch employees from retaliation when they disclose evidence of illegality, waste, fraud, abuse, or threats to public safety.

A budgeting method where every expense must be justified for each new period, starting from zero.

A budgeting or policy review method that requires every program to justify its existence from scratch each cycle, rather than building on prior allocations.

Zero-sum politics views political gains by one group as losses by another, emphasizing competition over cooperation.