Frozen conflicts post-Soviet

After the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991, several armed conflicts erupted along the periphery of the new successor states, typically pitting central governments against separatist regions backed—openly or covertly—by the Russian Federation. When active fighting ended through ceasefires rather than political settlements, the disputes became known as frozen conflicts: the territorial status remained unresolved, de facto entities exercised control without international recognition, and the underlying questions of sovereignty, borders, and displaced populations were deferred indefinitely.

The classic post-Soviet cases include:

• Transnistria (Moldova): war in 1992 ended by a ceasefire signed in Moscow in July 1992; Russian troops of the former 14th Army remained on the territory.
• Abkhazia and South Ossetia (Georgia): wars in the early 1990s produced Russian-mediated ceasefires; Russia recognised both as independent states after the August 2008 Russo-Georgian war.
• Nagorno-Karabakh (between Armenia and Azerbaijan): the 1994 Bishkek Protocol halted large-scale fighting, but the conflict re-ignited in 2016 and decisively in the 2020 Second Karabakh War, followed by Azerbaijan's September 2023 offensive that ended the self-declared Republic of Artsakh—illustrating that "frozen" conflicts can thaw violently.

Some analysts also include the Donbas conflict from 2014 onward, though Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine in February 2022 ended any pretence that it was frozen.

Common features include: a Russian military or "peacekeeping" presence, de facto statelets with their own currencies, passports, and elections; economic dependence on Moscow; large refugee and IDP populations; and stalled negotiation formats (the 5+2 talks on Transnistria, the Geneva International Discussions on Georgia, the OSCE Minsk Group on Karabakh). Critics argue Russia has used these conflicts as instruments of leverage to block the EU and NATO integration of neighbouring states.