Antarctic Treaty

The Antarctic Treaty was signed in Washington, D.C. on 1 December 1959 by twelve states active in Antarctic science during the 1957–58 International Geophysical Year: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States. It entered into force on 23 June 1961.

The treaty applies to the area south of 60° South latitude. Its core provisions include:

• Article I — Antarctica shall be used exclusively for peaceful purposes; military bases, weapons testing, and maneuvers are prohibited.
• Article II — Freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue.
• Article IV — The treaty neither recognizes nor disputes existing territorial claims, and no new claims may be asserted while it is in force. This "freezing" of sovereignty claims is the treaty's central diplomatic compromise.
• Article V — Nuclear explosions and disposal of radioactive waste in Antarctica are banned.
• Article VII — Any party may designate observers with unrestricted access to inspect stations, equipment, and ships.

The treaty has since grown into a broader regime known as the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), which includes the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972), the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR, 1980), and the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (the Madrid Protocol, 1991), the last of which designates Antarctica as a "natural reserve, devoted to peace and science" and prohibits mineral resource activity other than scientific research.

As of the 2020s, more than 50 states are parties to the treaty, of which roughly 29 are Consultative Parties with decision-making rights, demonstrated through "substantial scientific research activity" on the continent. Consultative meetings (ATCMs) are held annually. The treaty is often cited as a model for governing global commons, including outer space and the deep seabed.