Introduction to International Relations — Glossary

A situation where a country can produce a good or service more efficiently than another country, using fewer resources.

Benefits a state obtains from cooperation without comparing them to others' benefits, emphasizing overall improvement rather than relative advantage.

Complete and unrestricted authority of a state over its territory and population without external interference.

The self-regulating behavior of the marketplace where individuals' pursuit of self-interest leads to societal benefits.

A concept in international relations describing a system where sovereign states operate in an international system without a central governing authority, leading to self-help behavior among states.

A condition in the international system where no central authority exists above sovereign states, leading to self-help behavior and power competition.

Protection granted by a state to individuals fleeing persecution from their home country.

A condition where one party in a negotiation or transaction has more or better information than the other.

An economic policy or condition where a country aims for self-sufficiency, minimizing reliance on international trade.

A record of all economic transactions between residents of a country and the rest of the world over a period.

A theory in international relations suggesting that national security is enhanced when military capabilities are distributed so that no one state is strong enough to dominate others.

States form alliances based on perceived threats rather than just power, considering factors like geographic proximity and offensive capabilities.

A strategy where a weaker state aligns with a stronger power to share the benefits of its dominance rather than balancing against it.

A treaty establishing terms and protections for investments made by investors from one country in another country.

When strict climate policies cause emissions to shift to countries with looser regulations.

The formation of coalitions among states or actors to collectively control markets, resources, or political influence, often reducing competition. It can impact global economic governance.

Adam Smith's concept of the study of exchange and market phenomena as spontaneous order arising from individual self-interest.

An arrangement where states agree that an attack against one is an attack against all, promoting mutual defense.

An economic principle stating that countries benefit by specializing in producing goods where they have a lower opportunity cost than others, enabling efficient trade.

An IR theory emphasizing the role of ideas, identities, and social norms in shaping state behavior and the international system.

Socially constructed sense of self for states or actors that shapes their interests and interactions in international relations.

Individuals or groups who promote new norms and values to influence state behavior in the international system.

Shared ideas and standards within international society that shape state behavior and identities according to constructivist theory.

The process by which states adopt norms and identities through interaction and shared understandings in the international system.

The global economic downturn caused by the COVID-19 pandemic disrupting supply chains, employment, and markets.

Agreed standards and rules that govern state behavior in cyberspace to promote stability and prevent conflict.

The principle that states have the right to govern and control cyberspace within their territorial borders.

A debt deficit occurs when government expenditures exceed revenues, increasing national debt.

A theory in international relations positing that states seek security and survival rather than power maximization, emphasizing cautious behavior in an anarchic system.

The amount by which government expenditures exceed its revenues in a fiscal year.

The hypothesis that democracies are less likely to engage in armed conflict with one another due to shared norms and institutional constraints.

An economic and political theory that explains global inequality as a result of historical exploitation and structural dependence of developing countries on developed ones.

Hayek's critique that socialist economies cannot efficiently allocate resources because they lack price signals from free markets.

The unequal distribution of income and wealth among individuals or groups within a society.

A condition where countries are mutually reliant on each other for goods, services, and capital, affecting their political relations.

The excess payment made to a factor of production due to its scarcity rather than its contribution to productivity.

The automatic reinstatement of previously lifted economic sanctions when a party violates an international agreement. It serves as a mechanism to enforce compliance.

The principle advocating that human rights are inalienable and applicable to all people regardless of culture or nation, championed by Eleanor Roosevelt.

Rules ensuring fair and just division of maritime boundaries between states, considering geography and other relevant factors.

A financial crisis starting in 2009 marked by sovereign debt problems in several European countries using the euro currency.

Voluntary payments made by a state or organization without admitting legal obligation, often to victims of conflict or human rights violations.

An EEZ is a maritime zone extending up to 200 nautical miles from a coastal state’s shore where it has special rights over natural resources.

The formal process by which one state surrenders an individual accused or convicted of a crime to another state for prosecution or punishment.

A bilateral or multilateral agreement facilitating the handing over of accused or convicted persons between states.

A series of programs and reforms implemented to recover the U.S. economy during the Great Depression.

Government decisions about taxation and spending to influence the economy.

A legal doctrine allowing courts to dismiss a case when another forum is more appropriate for hearing the dispute.

The principle allowing ships of all states to sail through international waters without interference, subject to international law.

An economic theory emphasizing the control of money supply as the primary method to regulate economic activity and inflation.

The belief that controlling the money supply is the primary method to regulate economic activity and control inflation.

Milton Friedman's theory that people base consumption on expected long-term average income rather than current income fluctuations.

Immunity granted to state officials for acts performed in their official capacity, protecting them from foreign jurisdiction.

Protection granted to state officials from foreign jurisdiction for acts performed in their official capacity, distinct from personal immunity.

An international relations theory that argues cooperation in specific technical or economic areas can lead to broader integration and peace.

International treaties setting standards for humanitarian treatment during war, including protections for civilians and prisoners.

The use of economic instruments to achieve geopolitical objectives and influence global power dynamics.

The use of economic instruments to achieve geopolitical objectives and enhance national power.

The argument that centralized planners cannot possess all the information needed to efficiently allocate resources in an economy.

The theory that complex social orders arise naturally from individuals' actions without central planning.

Friedrich Hayek's argument that centralized planners cannot possess the dispersed knowledge necessary to efficiently allocate resources.

Friedrich Hayek's idea that prices convey information essential for coordinating economic activity in decentralized markets.

A theory suggesting that international order is most stable when a single dominant power, or hegemon, enforces rules and norms globally.

The idea that international order is more likely to be maintained when a single dominant power enforces rules and norms.

Dominance of one state or group over others in the international system, influencing rules, norms, and power structures.

Marx's theory that material economic conditions and class relations are the primary drivers of historical development and social change.

Humanitarian intervention is the use of military force by one or more states to prevent or stop widespread suffering or human rights violations in another state.

The International Court of Justice, the principal judicial organ of the UN that settles legal disputes between states.

Protection granted to certain persons or property from enforcement measures such as seizure or attachment under foreign jurisdiction.

Immunity granted to state officials for acts performed in their official capacity, protecting them from foreign jurisdiction.

The principal judicial organ of the UN that settles legal disputes between states and gives advisory opinions.

The body of law governing the protection of refugees, asylum seekers, and stateless persons under international treaties and customs.

A set of principles, norms, rules, and decision-making procedures around which actors' expectations converge in a specific issue area.

Adam Smith's concept describing the self-regulating behavior of the marketplace where individuals' pursuit of self-interest unintentionally benefits society as a whole.

Legal criteria that must be met before engaging in war, including just cause and legitimate authority.

Fundamental principles of international law that are universally recognized and cannot be violated by any state.

A liberal theory concept that peace is maintained through democracy, economic interdependence, and international institutions.

Economic policies that use government spending and taxation to influence aggregate demand and stabilize the economy.

John Maynard Keynes's theory that individuals prefer to hold their wealth in liquid form, influencing interest rates and investment.

An economic concept where an initial increase in spending leads to a greater overall increase in national income, amplifying the effects of fiscal policy.

Formal requests from courts in one country to judicial authorities in another for assistance in obtaining evidence or serving documents.

International relations theory emphasizing cooperation through institutions to overcome anarchy and promote peace.

A foreign policy doctrine advocating international cooperation, democratic governance, and rule-based order.

Karl Marx’s theory that economic structures and class relations drive historical change.

A trade principle requiring a state to grant another state the same trade advantages it provides to any third party.

Neoclassical realism combines systemic factors with domestic variables to explain state behavior in international politics.

A theory emphasizing the role of international institutions in facilitating cooperation among states despite an anarchic international system.

An economic and political ideology emphasizing free markets, deregulation, and reduction in government spending to enhance individual freedom.

Kwame Nkrumah's critique of continued economic and political control over former colonies by imperial powers.

Fundamental human rights that cannot be suspended or limited, even during emergencies or armed conflicts.

A key international law principle forbidding states from interfering in the internal affairs of other states.

Compensation for losses that are not predetermined or fixed in amount but assessed by courts or tribunals based on proof of actual harm.

International agreements and institutions designed to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons.

An international treaty aimed at preventing the spread of nuclear weapons and promoting peaceful nuclear energy use.

Post-World War II military tribunals prosecuting prominent Nazi leaders for war crimes and crimes against humanity.

A theory in international relations that emphasizes states seek to maximize their power and dominance to ensure security.

Economic and social benefits that arise from reduced military spending after the end of a conflict.

The process by which wealth concentrates over time, leading to increasing inequality unless checked by policy.

The analysis showing that when the return on capital exceeds economic growth, wealth inequality tends to increase.

Thomas Piketty’s analysis of wealth accumulation and its role in increasing economic inequality over time.

Thomas Piketty's analysis showing how wealth accumulates faster than economic growth, increasing inequality over time.

Power transition theory explains conflicts as arising when a rising power threatens to surpass the dominant hegemon, leading to potential war.

The use of force to prevent an imminent attack, justified before the attack actually occurs under international law.

Qualified majority voting is a decision-making process requiring a specified threshold of weighted votes, often used in international organizations to adopt binding measures.

An international norm that states have the responsibility to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity.

Economic policies promoted by Ronald Reagan focusing on tax cuts, deregulation, and reduced government spending to stimulate growth.

Economic policies under Ronald Reagan focusing on tax cuts and deregulation to stimulate production and growth.

Economic policies under Ronald Reagan emphasizing tax cuts and deregulation to stimulate production and economic growth.

International norm obligating states to prevent mass atrocities within their borders or accept international intervention.

An international norm that states must protect their populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity.

A UN Security Council body responsible for overseeing the implementation of sanctions regimes against states or entities.

An approach in international relations that explains how issues are framed as security threats requiring extraordinary measures.

A group of states among which war is considered unlikely because of shared norms, values, and mutual trust.

Situation where actions by a state to increase its security cause insecurity in others, leading to arms races or conflict.

A 2016 international tribunal ruling invalidating China's territorial claims in the South China Sea, a key regional dispute.

Sovereign debt restructuring is the process by which a state renegotiates its debt obligations to improve repayment terms and financial stability.

Tension between state sovereignty and international intervention for human rights or security.

Centralized economic programs aimed at rapid industrialization and collectivization under Joseph Stalin's rule.

The condition of individuals who are not recognized as citizens by any country, lacking legal nationality.

The concept that markets can fail due to information asymmetries, externalities, or monopolies, requiring government intervention.

Joseph Stiglitz's theory that unequal information among parties leads to market failures and inefficiencies.

Joseph Stiglitz's analysis of situations where markets fail due to imperfect information, leading to inefficient outcomes.

A theory in international relations emphasizing the anarchic structure of the international system as the primary determinant of state behavior and power distribution.

The ratio of export prices to import prices, indicating how many imports a country can buy per unit of exports.

The conservative political ideology associated with Margaret Thatcher, characterized by deregulation, privatization, and a reduction in state intervention.

Margaret Thatcher's policies promoting free markets, privatization, and reduced state intervention in the economy.

Margaret Thatcher's economic policy focusing on controlling inflation through monetary supply restrictions and reducing state intervention.

A U.S. program providing economic aid to Western Europe after World War II to rebuild economies and prevent the spread of communism.

FDR's series of programs and reforms aimed at economic recovery and social welfare during the Great Depression.

A set of proposals by developing countries in the 1970s to promote their interests through reforming global economic relations.

An economic system combining free-market capitalism with social policies that establish fair competition and welfare protections.

A concept illustrating how individuals acting in their own self-interest can deplete shared resources, harming the collective good.

The involvement of an external state or organization in an ongoing dispute or conflict between other states with consent or without.

A measure of how sensitive the quantity of traded goods is to changes in trade costs or prices.

The responsiveness of the quantity supplied of a good to changes in its price in international markets.

Environmental contamination that crosses national borders, requiring international cooperation to manage.

A set of principles, norms, rules, and decision-making procedures governing a specific international issue.

Treaty reservations are unilateral statements modifying treaty obligations, while objections are responses by other states rejecting such reservations.

Treaty termination clauses specify the conditions and procedures under which a treaty may be ended or withdrawn from by the parties.

International norm that states have a duty to protect populations from mass atrocities and the global community must intervene if they fail.

Immanuel Wallerstein analyzed the global capitalist system as divided into core, semi-periphery, and periphery regions influencing economic and political relations.

The principle that states have exclusive authority over their territory and domestic affairs without external interference.

A legal process resolving trade disputes between member countries to enforce WTO agreements.

Trade agreements within the WTO framework that involve only some member countries rather than all members.

These negotiations involve member states agreeing on tariff reductions to promote free and fair international trade.

Agreement aiming to simplify and expedite customs procedures to boost international trade efficiency.

The WTO entity responsible for resolving trade disputes between member countries.

Trade agreements among a subset of WTO members that do not require consensus of all members but operate under the WTO framework.

A zero-sum game describes a situation where one party’s gain is exactly balanced by another’s loss.